Journal of Water and Sustainable Development

Abstract Most readers are undoubtedly familiar with the phrase: "Water is not merely a legacy left to us by our forebears; it is a trust held on behalf of future generations." This statement, long a fixture in Iran’s discourse on water, represents more than just an ethical recommendation; it articulates a fundamental principle of water resource governance: "Each generation acts as a steward of this shared asset, duty-bound to utilize it in a manner that simultaneously upholds the rights of the present generation, future generations, and the environment." In reality, water is not merely a production input, an economic commodity, or even just an ordinary natural resource; rather, it is the foundation of ecosystem vitality, the source of food security, and essential to public health—and in Iran, it constitutes "the basis of sustainability and a critical bottleneck for the country's development." Consequently, water resource management is a matter concerning ethics, public law, and governance, rather than being solely a technical or managerial issue. Although the languages of ethics, law, and governance differ, all three underscore a fundamental truth: water resources are a public asset and an intergenerational trust, and their management must serve the public interest, justice, and the sustainability of the land. In the realm of governance, "institutional conflict of interest" stands as one of the most significant challenges to implementing "good governance." Such conflict arises when institutional mechanisms and structures allow sectoral or organizational interests to take precedence over an institution's core mission. Under these circumstances, even competent managers may inadvertently find themselves making decisions that do not align with the organization's fundamental mission. It can be said that whenever a conflict arises between "water resource conservation" and "other organizational interests," the quality of water governance declines, and public trust is undermined. Consequently, reforming water governance requires the overhaul of institutional mechanisms and structures rather than merely a change of personnel.

Abstract The aim of the research is to investigate and understand the historical and social dimensions of unrest caused by water scarcity and drought in the Sistan region during the Second Pahlavi Period by examining the content of documents from the National Archives and Library of Iran and other archival sources. The research method is historical and descriptive-analytical. Library sources have also been used. The research, based on documents from the National Archives and Library of Iran and other archival sources, seeks to answer the following questions: How did the water scarcity crisis in Sistan during the Second Pahlavi Period turn from a natural problem into social unrest? What role and function can be attributed to government policies, local institutions, and popular actions in this process? And finally, what mechanisms have contributed to the inefficiency of crisis management? The research findings show that during the Pahlavi II period, the Sistan region faced a water crisis caused by the water cut off from the Helmand River by Afghanistan and the ineffectiveness of government policies. This crisis led to social unrest and farmer sit-ins, widespread migration, and reduced food security. The water crisis has not only had environmental consequences, but also numerous political, security, and social consequences. The main cause of the unrest was the structural inefficiency in water resource management, the water cut off by Afghanistan, and the weakness of the Iranian government in responding to the demands of the people of Sistan.

Abstract Given the water scarcity crisis and the influential role of women in shaping household and community consumption patterns, this study aimed to analyze the consequences of women’s behavioral change, shifting from passive consumers to active agents in managing water consumption. The research employed the Grounded Theory approach. Data were collected through 20 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with experts in the fields of water and environmental studies, using purposive and snowball sampling within the framework of theoretical sampling. The consequences were extracted through open, axial, and selective coding, yielding 56 initial codes, 11 concepts, and three subcategories: (1) Empowering women to play an active role in society along the path of sustainable development, (2) Behavioral change and active participation of women for the realization of sustainable development, and (3) Sustainable management of water resources and responsible household consumption. Finally, by identifying the relationships among the categories, a theoretical model was developed. The findings show that the realization of sustainable development requires a shift in policy-making from a focus on physical and infrastructure-based solutions toward a socio-cultural approach based on the empowerment and agency of women. This shift creates the conditions for sustainable water resource management and consumption.

Abstract Urban water governance is increasingly relying on adaptive and integrated systems alongside conventional structural measures. This paper proposes an innovative and integrated spatial decision-making approach to enhance urban water governance. The study emphasizes collaborative stakeholder engagement within a GIS-based multi-criteria decision analysis framework. A decision-support toolbox developed in a Geographic Information System environment employs the Analytic Hierarchy Process. The proposed model integrates spatial analysis and stakeholder participation into a unified spatial planning support system. The results of a case study conducted in Tehran demonstrate the practical applicability of the proposed method in the field of urban water governance. The final flood hazard map classified the study area into six distinct risk levels. Approximately 6% of the area was categorized as very high vulnerability, primarily located in areas characterized by low slopes, high density, and insufficient drainage infrastructure. Classes two and three, representing moderate to high vulnerability, accounted for about 43% of the area, while 42% fell within the low-vulnerability category. Least-cost path analysis, considering land use, slope, and geological criteria, was applied to identify suitable routes for urban runoff collection. The findings indicate that the immediate upgrading of the drainage system in the southeastern areas is essential. The proposed routes, by leveraging existing infrastructure and favorable topography, can reduce construction costs while helping to minimize potential negative economic and social impacts, such as resident displacement. Overall, the proposed model provides a replicable framework for integrating technical, social, and institutional considerations in urban flood governance.

The results of a case study conducted in Tehran demonstrate the practical applicability of the proposed method in the field of urban water governance. The final flood hazard map classified the study area into six distinct risk levels. Approximately 6% of the area was categorized as very high vulnerability, primarily located in areas characterized by low slopes, high density, and insufficient drainage infrastructure. Classes two and three, representing moderate to high vulnerability, accounted for about 43% of the area, while 42% fell within the low-vulnerability category.

Least-cost path analysis, considering land use, slope, and geological criteria, was applied to identify suitable routes for urban runoff collection. The findings indicate that the immediate upgrading of the drainage system in the southeastern areas is essential. The proposed routes, by leveraging existing infrastructure and favorable topography, can reduce construction costs while helping to minimize potential negative economic and social impacts, such as resident displacement. Overall, the proposed model provides a replicable framework for integrating technical, social, and institutional considerations in urban flood governance.

Abstract This study presents a critical systematic review of research on water conflicts in the Kashafrud river basin (Mashhad) and uses a framework-based synthesis to identify analytical and policy shortcomings in the literature. An integrative framework drawing on resource governance theories, historical and sociological institutionalism, game theory, and principal–agent theory was developed and translated into operational coding indicators. Out of 48 identified studies, after removing duplicates and conceptual screening, 14 studies were included for qualitative appraisal. Results show that “historical path dependence” was absent in 11 studies and strong in only 2. For “rules and governance arrangements,” no study scored strong, while 11 were limited and 3 were absent. For “conflict type and level,” only 1 study scored strong and 3 were absent. For “actors and power distribution,” 2 studies were strong and 12 were limited. Moreover, about half of the studies were absent in “representation and stakeholder participation,” and most studies were limited or absent in “cultural and normative dimensions.” Overall, the main weakness is not the lack of problem description, but limited attention to institutional trajectories, the absence of a coherent conflict typology, insufficient measurement of stakeholder power and representation, and weak links between governance rules and operational mechanisms for dispute resolution, enforcement, and accountability. Accordingly, the article proposes three policy steps: developing a conflict typology with a corresponding dispute-resolution package, upgrading a monitorable responsibility–accountability matrix, and reconstructing a decision timeline coupled with mapping institutional bottlenecks.

Abstract This study analyzes the alignment between water governance systems in ten arid, transboundary river basins, the Nile River, Murray-Darling, Lake Chad, Indus River, Helmand River, Mekong River, Colorado River, Jordan River, Volta River, and Aral Sea, and the economic and social dimensions of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The results indicate that water governance in these basins is significantly influenced by political relations of countries; however, the existence of water treaties has frequently helped mitigate tensions and promote sustainable resource management. The establishment of joint institutions and participatory mechanisms also plays a key factor in strengthening regional cooperation and ensuring justice in water distribution. From an economic perspective, in the Murray-Darling and Colorado basins, the implementation of water markets and price rationalization have enhanced alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 8: Sustainable Economic Growth). In contrast, the continuation of subsidy policies, the lack of real pricing and transboundary challenges in the Helmand, Lake Chad, Aral, Nile and Mekong basins have weakened local economies and hindered the optimal allocation of water resources. From a social perspective, inequality in water access and limited stakeholder participation in decision-making the Helmand, Chad, and Aral basins have exacerbated social conflicts and reduced the resilience of local communities. Overall, the observed patterns suggest that achieving effective water governance and sustainable development in arid regions with transboundary river basins requires strengthening cross-border cooperation, reforming economic policies to establish a circular economy within basin boundaries,  the restructuring of organizational communication and decision-making frameworks centered on water conservation and security, and the institutionalization of inclusive engagement for both domestic and international stakeholders.

Abstract The water crisis in arid and semi-arid countries such as Iran has transcended a mere environmental challenge to become a complex socio-economic issue, influencing demographic patterns and national security. This study aims to analyze the causal relationship between the water crisis and internal migration (2011–2023) and to quantify its impact on food security, employing an applied, descriptive-analytical method using panel data from 31 provinces. Data were collected from official and satellite sources and analyzed using panel econometric methods and spatial analysis. The findings reveal a significant, positive, and escalating causal relationship between excessive groundwater extraction and out-migration from agriculture-dependent provinces. On average, each increase of one million cubic meters in groundwater withdrawal adds 0.05% to net population outflows. The number of provinces caught in the vicious "water-migration" cycle has increased, and the cultivated area under strategic crops has declined by more than 20% in some regions. The migration pattern exhibits positive spatial autocorrelation; out-migration from a crisis-stricken province intensifies migration to neighboring provinces. Spatial analysis identifies the provinces of Isfahan, Kerman, Razavi Khorasan, Yazd, and Fars as hotspots of compounded crisis (critical origins), while Tehran, Alborz, Gilan, and Mazandaran are identified as primary migration destinations. Consequently, the water crisis has evolved into a "multi-dimensional security crisis" threatening water security, food production capacity, demographic stability, and territorial balance. Formulating a "National Strategic Document on Water, Food, and Population" centered on integrated governance, land-use planning based on water carrying capacity, and the development of low-water-dependent economies is essential. The main limitation of this study is its reliance on macro-level secondary data and the use of proxy indicators to measure the complexities of food security.

Abstract Industrial pollution, excessive exploitation, and unsustainable management of water resources have not only degraded aquatic ecosystems and reduced biodiversity but have also generated significant consequences for public health, social security, and economic development. This article addresses the central question of whether the existing frameworks of international law possess the necessary capacity to effectively prevent and respond to destructive acts against water resources. The research hypothesizes that the current international legal system, despite the existence of various treaties and dispersed legal instruments, lacks sufficient capacity to criminalize and ensure effective accountability for such acts. Employing an analytical-documentary methodology, the study draws upon statistical data, reports issued by international organizations, and case studies from critical regions around the world. The analysis of international legal instruments further reveals significant structural gaps and deficiencies in the identification, prevention, and punishment of destructive acts targeting water resources. The article concludes that the existing legal frameworks are inadequate to address the complex and transnational dimensions of this phenomenon. It argues that the explicit and autonomous criminalization of destructive acts against water resources at the international level constitutes a necessary prerequisite for the effective protection of these resources and for safeguarding fundamental human rights.

Abstract The crisis of water imbalance in contemporary Iran, particularly during the period of the Islamic Republic (1979-2025), has become one of the most complex challenges of governance, generating wide-ranging environmental, economic, social, and security consequences. Despite the unprecedented escalation of the water imbalance crisis and the adoption of numerous laws, programs, and documents in the water sector (which are themselves part of the policy-making process), the effective implementation of these documents and the realization of sustainable reforms in practice have failed. The water sector in Iran faces significant expert conflicts. These disagreements are not simply due to scientific perceptions, but each expert stream also has its own political backing. Therefore, the analysis of water policies cannot be complete without considering this link between knowledge, interests, and political fortune. Adopting a qualitative approach and drawing on documentary analysis and policy analysis, this study employs the Multiple Streams Framework and John Kingdon’s Policy Window model to address the central question of why, during the period of the Islamic Republic, the necessary “policy window” for a paradigmatic shift in water policy-making has not been effectively opened, despite the heightened salience of the water crisis and the availability of expert solutions. The findings indicate that, in the Islamic Republic period, the “problem stream,” marked by the intensification of water resource imbalance, land subsidence, the drying of ecosystems, and the emergence of social conflicts, has escalated to the level of a national security crisis. Within the “policy stream,” although solutions such as demand management and the balancing of groundwater resources have been proposed since the 1980s, the supply-oriented paradigm of dam construction and water transfer has continued to dominate in practice. By contrast, the “political stream,” due to institutional fragmentation, conflicts of interest, the influence of powerful stakeholders, weak oversight, and financial constraints, has been unable to effectively couple these two streams. As a result, the policy windows that have opened have either remained unused or have led to short-term and ineffective policies, which in turn have further deepened the crisis of water imbalance. This article shows that the aforementioned failure is largely due to structural weaknesses in the “policy-making process” (institutional fragmentation, influence of interest coalitions, policy conflict, and formulation-implementation gap), rather than a lack of law or technical knowledge.

Abstract In this paper, by critiquing the purely engineering approach to Iran's water crisis, emphasis is placed on the determining role of "governance," and particularly "institutional conflict of interest," as a structural obstacle to the sustainable management of the country's water resources. By formulating the "intrinsic mission" of the water management institution including the protection of resources, ecological sustainability, equity in allocation, and safeguarding the environmental water right and the rights of future generations and by examining the gap between legal ideals and operational realities, the paper has shown how role overlap, excessive centralization, and the allocation of budget to incorrect priorities have prevented the water institution from performing its main function. Furthermore, drawing on the experience of Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, and South Africa, it is shown that separating regulatory duties from operational duties, and decentralization, are among the pillars of successful water governance. In the end, in order to move beyond this situation, solutions such as "separating regulatory duties from operational duties," and also "institutional redesign based on the principle of mission preceding structure and effective decentralization," have been proposed.

Abstract The increasing water stress at both global and national levels, particularly in countries such as Iran, has shown that linear and single‑dimensional approaches to urban water management are no longer capable of addressing the existing complex challenges. In this context, adopting a circular economy approach and aligning water supply and demand management strategies in an integrated manner has emerged as a strategic necessity. This research aims to design a strategic framework for aligning urban water supply and demand management with the circular economy approach. In today's world, the growing challenges of water scarcity and limited water resources necessitate a review of traditional management models and a shift toward innovative and sustainable approaches. The circular economy, as a new paradigm, provides the opportunity to create alignment between supply strategies and demand management. In this research, using the thematic analysis method, 91 scientific articles published between 2015 and 2024 were examined. The research results led to the identification of five main dimensions (resource and infrastructure management strategies, circular economy strategies, demand and consumption management strategies, planning and policy-making strategies, and stakeholder participation and collaboration strategies), 26 components, and 62 indicators. This framework can serve as a guide for policymakers and urban water specialists in designing and implementing strategies aligned with circular economy principles and provide the foundation for achieving sustainable water resource management.

Abstract Food security is a fundamental pillar of sustainable development, and its realization requires effective and accountable governance throughout the entire food supply chain. A review of previous national studies indicates that food security governance in the country has predominantly focused on improving productivity, while facing challenges such as weak conceptual definitions of food security, constraints on transparency and stakeholder engagement, and the absence of integrated policy mechanisms. Adopting a systems approach and employing system dynamics, this study proposes a conceptual framework as an innovative tool for analyzing and improving water and food governance. The framework enables the assessment of key institutions, their interrelationships, and the effectiveness of existing policies based on data and empirical evidence, thereby helping to identify institutional bottlenecks and develop corrective scenarios. The tool highlights the interdependence of food production on scarce water resources and underscores the need to link water and food governance.  The results of implementing the current status scenario indicate that food availability exceeds 80%, while the access index varies between 60% and 90%. However, water extraction at a rate of 50% above sustainable levels highlights the unsustainability of production. Furthermore, with a daily food consumption of 4 kilograms, the nutritional health index fluctuates between 43% and 63%, indicating an unfavorable nutritional status. Overall, the focus of current policies on increasing production, without regard for nutritional health and resource sustainability, has placed the country's food security in a precarious position and led to the degradation of production resources. Therefore, the implementation of innovative approaches to enhance food security sustainability is essential.

Abstract Estimating the economic value of water plays a fundamental role in the efficient management of water resources and in making informed decisions for water supply planning. It is regarded as one of the main pillars in resource allocation, the design of pricing systems, and the development of sustainable water markets. In this study, the economic value of water was estimated using the Residual Value Method, based on data from the Statistical Center of Iran’s Census plan for industrial enterprises with 10 or more employees during the years 2002 to 2019. The results indicate that the economic value of water varies significantly across major industrial sectors in the Zayandeh-Rud Basin, with an average value of 5,254,702 rials per cubic meter, based on the producer price index, for the year 2024. These findings can be considered in the economic assessments of water supply projects for large industries in the basin. Furthermore, according to the research results, the average cost of water in the industrial production process was less than 0.2% of total production costs, and the ratio of this cost to the economic value of water estimated to be below 0.02. These findings highlight the necessity for a review of the industrial water pricing system, the enhancement of statistical data quality in the industrial sector, and the incorporation of the true economic value of water into water allocation and investment policies in the country.

Abstract The Internet of Things (IoT), through real-time monitoring and data analysis, enhances the sustainability of urban water systems and guides cities towards smart management and sustainable water supply. In this regard, the present research study has been prepared with the aim of meta-analyzing the role of the Internet of Things in the future of urban water systems in Tehran metropolis. The research approach is a systematic and structural meta-analysis, which is applied in terms of objective and descriptive-analytical in terms of methodology, based on bibliometrics and Delphi. In the first part, through systematic analysis, 388 articles retrieved from the Scopus database were identified and analyzed using VOSviewer software. In the second, structural part, 14 key indicators were analyzed using the MICMAC technique, and future scenarios were identified with the Scenario Wizard software. The statistical population comprises experts in the fields of water and urban planning, from whom 60 individuals were selected as the statistical sample using purposive sampling. The results indicate the dominance of research output from India (30.9%), China (8.5%), and the United States (7.2%). The primary research areas investigated include water quality monitoring, leak detection, smart metering, and demand management, while future challenges encompass data security, privacy, and interoperability between systems. The results of the structural analysis showed that smart irrigation has the highest influence and water infrastructure monitoring has the highest susceptibility, highlighting the key role of technology and infrastructure in urban water management. The scenarios indicated that only through the synergy of smart technologies, data analysis, and cybersecurity can high efficiency and equitable access to water be achieved in Tehran metropolis. Therefore, future predictive analyses, increased connectivity, and IoT integration are essential for optimizing water resource management and ensuring its long-term sustainability.

Abstract Water scarcity in Tehran, within Iran's arid and semi-arid climate, has become a lasting crisis, with domestic water consumption trends indicating a potential annual deficit. Traditional solutions like dam construction and new water source extraction are increasingly inadequate. Consequently, researchers focus on altering consumer behavior through innovative strategies such as social marketing. This study employs the SHIFT theory, a modern behavioral change model for sustainability, to create a tool that identifies factors influencing household water consumption. The core dimensions of the SHIFT theory provide a framework for understanding sustainable behavior determinants. In the initial phase, a questionnaire was developed based on SHIFT theory variables, and content validity was evaluated by 14 experts from the water sector and academia. The second phase involved pre-testing and refining the questionnaire using responses from 135 domestic water consumers. After adjustments, the final questionnaire was distributed online, collecting 1,019 responses, 924 from Tehran residents. Partial Least Squares (PLS) analysis was performed using SmartPLS3 software. Results showed that emotions and descriptive norms significantly influence household water consumption behaviors. In particular, negative emotions associated with high water usage and the observed consumption behaviors of others were strong determinants of individual water use.

Abstract This study examines the state of water resources governance in the Ilam Dam watershed. Water resource governance is a multifaceted concept involving interactions between institutional factors, public support, and adaptability to future changes. To evaluate these factors, questionnaires were designed and distributed among three main groups: managers, experts, and watershed residents. The results from the data analysis indicate that in terms of public support, the average scores given by managers, experts, and residents were 3.92, 3.84, and 3.78, respectively, indicating a good status but highlighting the need for increased awareness and more active public participation. The institutional factor, with average scores of 3.62 for managers and experts and 3.50 for residents, also shows a good status. These results reflect the relative efficiency of existing institutions, but there is a need for further strengthening, increased transparency, and accountability. The adaptability factor, with average scores of 3.98 for managers, 3.86 for experts, and 3.65 for residents, indicates a relatively good ability to face future changes and challenges. However, the lower scores from residents highlight the need for greater focus on empowering the local community and improving early warning systems. According to the results, the overall state of water governance from the perspective of managers, experts, and residents of the watershed was evaluated as good, with scores of 3.84, 3.77, and 3.64, respectively. Enhancing public engagement, strengthening managerial institutions, and improving the adaptive capacities of the local community can contribute to better water resource governance and sustainable development.

Abstract The water crisis is one of the most important crises in Iran, and solving it requires examining the causes. The empirical literature indicates that the primary cause of Iran's water crisis lies first in the state's entry into water management and subsequently in its inefficiency in managing water resources. However, this literature does not address why and how the state entered water governance and centralized its control. Inspired by Mollinga's embeddedness approach and historical institutionalism, and utilizing the concepts of context and critical juncture, this study examines the history of state intervention in water governance and identifies key junctures. Findings reveal that the water governance context, including empowering farmers to pay taxes, drought and food supply needs, developmental approaches during modern state formation, and the class base of parliamentary representatives and officials, led to the first critical juncture: the establishment of the Irrigation Organization in 1943. This organization allowed for the state's participatory involvement in water management. Over the next 20 years, contextual changes—such as increased state financial resources, shifts in officials' class structures, suppression of opposition, the rise of Mohammad Reza Shah's power, and the use of water projects for state-building—established the hydraulic mission among elites. To implement this mission, the state required a powerful bureaucracy, realized with the Ministry of Water and Power's establishment. Thus, the state gained centralized and exclusive control over water governance.

Abstract In this Conceptual-analytical article, the concept of water accounting and the necessity of the role of water accounting in water governance have been explained, as well as the correction of common previous beliefs and assumptions, and the step-by-step description of the water accounting cycle. For this purpose, the basic concepts related to these issues, such as food security, water security, water accounting and water auditing have been proposed at the beginning. Then, the key features of the water accounting approach, as well as the importance of water accounting and auditing as a tool for evaluating good governance, have been considered in detail. At the end, the topics of water accounting and auditing in water management and governance have been stated and the final conclusion has been made. Water accounting provides information about the trend of water supply and demand in space and time and examines the underlying causes of the imbalance in water supply and demand by different water users, the stability of the current level of water consumption, and the efficiency or effectiveness of water use by different stakeholders. Therefore, water accounting is increasingly considered critical for evidence-based policymaking related to water resources. In practice, basic information, including biophysical and technical data, does not necessarily translate into relevant political choices and their successful implementation on the ground. Many theories have attributed the growing challenges in water resources to a "crisis of governance". Understanding the physical and technical limitations in water resource management approaches, as well as the importance of institutional and political factors in shaping water-related policies and determining the methods of implementing these policies, seems essential.

Abstract Social conflicts over water resources are one of the most important and growing challenges in today's society, rooted in the scarcity of water resources. With population growth, climate change, and a host of other factors, water resources have become limited, leading to social conflict and strife. This applied research has explained the scenarios resulting from the socio-political conflicts of Iraq’s water based on the hydropolitical relations between Iran and Iraq using a descriptive-analytical method and Mic Mac, Scenario Wizard, and Vensim software. The results of the research showed that ethnic tensions on both sides of the border, Turkey's dam construction on the branches of the Tigris and Euphrates, climate change, the level of attention to advanced technologies in water resource management, the dependence of livelihoods in western Iran and eastern Iraq on water resources, sustainable development, and paramilitary groups were selected as key variables affecting the hydropolitical relations between Iran and Iraq resulting from the social conflicts of water in Iraq. Imagining different states from critical to desirable for key variables, the scenario of hydropolitical relations between Iran and Iraq, resulting from social conflicts in Iraq, showed it to be critical. In this regard, strengthening hydrodiplomacy and regional cooperation; cooperation between Iran and Iraq to negotiate with Turkey to respect the rights of downstream countries; investment in new technologies for water resources management; the establishment of water-efficient industries in western Iran and eastern Iraq; and attention to the linkage of water, food, and energy in integrated water resources management were suggested as the most important solutions to prevent the creation of a critical situation.

Abstract Water, a vital element for socio-spatial sustainability, has emerged as a central issue in geopolitics in recent decades due to factors such as climate change, population growth, and economic development. This applied research, employing a descriptive-analytical approach, investigates the primary drivers influencing the transformation of watershed governance systems within the hydropolitical context of the transboundary Harirud River. The main objective of this study is to identify and analyze the key drivers shaping the future of hydropolitical relations in this watershed. The findings reveal four primary drivers: a focus on socio-economic issues aligned with the hydropolitical objectives of water resources, an emphasis on local water governance, coordinated management of  transboundary watersheds, and the utilization of indigenous knowledge, rainwater harvesting, and flood management. These drivers, identified by experts, are the most critical factors influencing hydropolitical relations in the Harirud watershed. The results underscore the necessity of a comprehensive and integrated approach to watershed governance that encompasses social, institutional, international, and technical dimensions. The findings highlight the critical importance of these drivers in ensuring regional water sustainability and security, mitigating potential conflicts, and facilitating transboundary cooperation for the optimal and sustainable management of shared water resources in the Harirud watershed.

Abstract The water crisis in Iran has been viewed as a natural tragedy, and the solutions to address it have been primarily understood within hydrological discussions as centralized, technocratic, and lacking participatory mechanisms. The present study rejects this perspective and, adopting a bottom-up approach along with Ostrom's theory of common resource governance and the theory of social hydrology, seeks to analyze the narratives of farmers in the villages of Dehgolan in confronting the water crisis and its relationship with their lifeworld. The fundamental assumption has been that farmers, as the first and most important stakeholders of water resources, possess a distinct understanding and approach to confrontation. The resulting data have been interpreted and explained as rich socio-political texts, aiming to reveal how the ecological water crisis is intertwined with governance crisis, social justice, and institutional marginalization. The narrative analysis methodology was adopted, and to this end, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 23 farmers from 11 villages in Dehgolan County. The findings were interpreted and explained through 5 secondary categories and 1 core category. The results indicated that the lifeworld of farmers in this critical situation and water governance has become fragile. The fragility of the lifeworld of Dehgolan farmers stems from the triple interaction of weak institutional governance, the dominance of market rules, and impractical environmental awareness. These factors have led to reactive behaviors among farmers in this context, resulting in socio-cultural transformation and the denial of their collective agency by institutions and each other. Therefore, a paradigm shift in governance (transitioning from centralized to participatory approaches) and a redefinition of the relationship between the market, the environment, and society seem necessary, whereby the role and position of farmers become central to the participation and management of water resources.

Abstract The statistical population consists of specialists and experts in the water sector, 35 people have been selected as the sample size by the two-stage Delphi method. The information has been analyzed through analysis, inference, and decision-making techniques of BWM and PIPRECIA. The results of the analysis show that the existing challenges of drinking water in Kerman city include: decreasing levels of drinking water supply resources, increasing population, urbanization, increasing area and physical surface of the city, high water consumption in car washes, green spaces, and industries, unauthorized branches, and harsh climatic conditions. The results of the BWM technique indicate that the social dimension with a value of 0.259 ranks first and is recognized as the most important challenge, the economic dimension with a value of 0.250 ranks second, the political dimension with a score of 0.246 ranks third, and finally the environmental dimension with a final value of 0.243 ranks last in the challenge of the freshwater crisis in Kerman city. The results of the PIPRECIA technique in measuring the ranking of the drinking water challenges index in Kerman city show that the challenge of conflict and disagreement between the city and other cities in the province with a weight of 0.0442 is the most important challenge and ranks first, the threat to public health and well-being with a weight of 0.04404 is ranked second, and the increase in living costs with a weight of 0.044047 is ranked third.

Abstract Water conflicts represent inevitable challenges in societies facing increasing scarcity and competing demands for limited resources. Addressing these conflicts requires intelligent governance approaches grounded in active community participation and endogenous development. This analytical paper traces the historical evolution of water management in Iran—from traditional community-based systems to centralized state control—and critically examines the negative consequences of the state’s monopolistic and bureaucratic approach. Building upon theoretical foundations such as Ostrom’s commons governance principles, the subsidiarity principle, and social–ecological resilience theory, the study emphasizes the necessity of redefining the government’s role from a direct operator to a facilitator and regulator. Drawing on successful experiences from Iran (Tajan and Tazehabad), as well as Kenya, Uganda, and Peru, the paper proposes a stepwise framework for a gradual transition toward community-based water management. The findings indicate that empowering local institutions, utilizing indigenous knowledge, and ensuring participatory monitoring can substantially reduce social tensions, improve water sustainability, and decrease management costs. The study concludes that the water crisis in Iran is primarily a governance crisis and recommends legal reforms, transparency mechanisms, and pilot projects to institutionalize participatory governance and enhance national water resilience.



Keywords: Water conflicts, community participation, state control, facilitation, endogenous development, water governance.

Abstract This article examines the jurisprudential and legal foundations of water ownership in Iran, combining perspectives from Islamic jurisprudence and Iranian statutory law. Drawing on Qur’anic verses, Hadiths, and established jurisprudential principles, it categorizes water into Anfal (divine property), public commons, and general mubah (permissible) resources, analyzing their differences in terms of possession, ownership, and use rights. The study further explores the concept of water rights (haqq al-ma’) and the relevant jurisprudential principles, including La Darar (no harm), Taslit (authority over property), Ihya’ (revival), and Asbaqiyyah (priority), showing how these principles guide equitable and lawful water utilization. Findings indicate that most Islamic jurists consider water a public resource accessible to all, unless it is legitimately claimed through development or possession. From a legal perspective, the article traces the evolution of Iran’s water laws from the 1928 Civil Code to the 1982 Fair Water Distribution Law, emphasizing the regulatory role of the Islamic government in managing water resources. Finally, the authors propose recognizing all public waters as Anfal, providing a coherent jurisprudential framework that can support sustainable management, reduce conflicts between legal and religious norms, and ensure equitable access for all users.

Abstract The growing crises in the country's water resources have created cross-sectoral dimensions and profound threats to public health, the environment, and sustainable development. In a situation where the executive capacities of the responsible agencies are not sufficient to respond to these crises, the entry of supervisory and judicial institutions, especially the public prosecutor, within the framework of established laws, including Articles 46 of the Fair Water Distribution Law and 688 of the Islamic Penal Code, can play an effective role in controlling and correcting destructive processes. This note, using an analytical approach and examining several field experiences, addresses the role of this institution in dealing with water violations and crises and explains the existing legal capacities.