Journal of Water and Sustainable Development

Abstract Land subsidence, as a creeping geomorphic hazard and a direct consequence of the overexploitation of groundwater resources, poses a serious threat to environmental sustainability and water security in arid and semi-arid regions. In this regard, the present study evaluates the impact of groundwater level decline on the rate of subsidence in the Sistan region using Sentinel-1 radar images. This research was conducted using a combined approach, utilizing 54 Sentinel-1 radar images (2014–2022), GRACE data, water level data from 29 piezometric wells, and Landsat 8 images of the Sistan region. The InSAR technique in SNAP software was employed to estimate subsidence, and the Random Forest algorithm (with a Kappa accuracy of 0.95) was used for land use classification. The findings indicate a direct and significant relationship between groundwater decline and subsidence. The average annual rate of groundwater decline increased from 6.5 cm/year in 2015 to 12.7 cm/year in 2017. Concurrently, the average subsidence rate increased from approximately -10 cm/year during 2014–2016 to more than -20 cm/year during 2020–2022. The highest subsidence rate (average -2.33 cm) was concentrated in the agricultural lands of the central and eastern parts of the Sistan Plain. A strong correlation coefficient of 0.82 between InSAR data and piezometric well observations confirms the accuracy of the method. Furthermore, the increase in barren land area between 2014 and 2024 indicates additional pressure on water resources. The overall results showed that the overextraction of water for agriculture is the main driver of subsidence in Sistan. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of integrating Sentinel-1 and GRACE data as an accurate and cost-effective tool for regional subsidence monitoring.

Abstract The use of cultured fish in unconventional water resources, including saline water, reclaimed water, and industrial effluents, has emerged as a promising strategy for enhancing aquaculture production and strengthening food security. Owing to the availability and diversity of these alternative water resources, particularly in regions facing freshwater scarcity, their utilization can alleviate pressure on conventional freshwater ecosystems while improving environmental sustainability. This review examines the opportunities and challenges associated with the application of unconventional water resources in aquaculture. The focus is on water quality, including salinity and contaminant concentrations, and its critical role in fish growth and survival. Research shows that some species, such as native fish, can be somewhat resistant to high salinity and pollution-induced stresses. The study also emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary research and the development of new technologies in optimizing farming conditions. It also provides solutions to reduce negative environmental impacts and improve economic profitability. The study showed that sustainable exploitation of unconventional water resources in aquaculture requires a comprehensive approach that can harmonize economic, social, and environmental dimensions. The most important practical suggestion is to formulate and communicate specific quality standards for these resources, along with the development of low-cost treatment technologies and the selection of indigenous resistant species. Only through close cooperation between the government, the private sector and operators, and with the continuous implementation of these integrated policies, can a sustainable future be achieved in the aquaculture industry.

Abstract در راستای جلوگیری از گرمایش زمین و اثرات مخرب استفاده از سوخت‌های فسیلی، بهره‌گیری از انرژی‌های تجدیدپذیر در رأس برنامه‌های بسیاری از کشورها قرار گرفته است. با وجود سرمایه‌گذاری مناسب، نگرانی از کمبود موادمعدنی مورد استفاده در منابع تجدیدپذیر سبب شده است که اکتشاف معادن جدید شتاب بگیرد. هدف مطالعه حاضر بررسی پیامدهای بهره‌گیری از انرژی‌های تجدیدپذیر بر منابع آبی از منظر مواد معدنی مورد نیاز در صنایع مرتبط است. در این راستا، با مطالعه تحقیقات انجام گرفته به چالش‌های این موضوع پرداخته شده و اثر بهره‌گیری از انرژی‌های‌تجدیدپذیر بر منابع آبی از دیدگاه مواد معدنی مورد نیاز بررسی شده است. بررسی انجام گرفته نشان می دهد که چهارعامل کمبود موادمعدنی ، قرارگیری معادن در مناطق با تنش آبی، منازعات بین‌المللی و عدم کنترل زنجیره تأمین (به سبب انحصار تعدادی از کشورها) تأمین ایمن مواد مذکور را به یک چالش تبدیل کرده است. بر مبنای مطالعه انجام گرفته، در حدود نیمی از تولید لیتیوم ومس (به عنوان دو عنصر حیاتی جهت توسعه انرژی‌های‌تجدیدپذیر) در مناطقی است که تنش آبی‌بالایی دارند. این در حالی است که کمبود آب یک مانع بزرگ برای توسعه منابع مواد معدنی بوده و عملیات استخراج در بلندمدت سبب آلودگی آب می‌شود. در این راستا فعالیت‌ها، تأثیرات و خطرات ناشی از توسعه موادمعدنی مرتبط با آب در سه حوزه تولید، فرآوری و توزیع معرفی شده است. جهت پیشگیری و رفع این بحران، چهار راهکار شامل استفاده بهینه از مواد معدنی، مدیریت آب‌های زیرزمینی و ارتقا بهره‌وری، انجام اقدامات سیاسی و همچنین بکارگیری ابزارهای اقتصادی معرفی شده است.

Abstract Drought, as a natural and creeping phenomenon, is considered one of the most important climate challenges in arid and semi-arid regions, including Iran. Given the context of climate change and the increased severity of drought events, a dynamical analysis is crucial for effective water resource management. This study aimed to investigate the probabilistic behavior and drought dynamics within the Mashhad Plain. To achieve this, the Markov Chain model was applied to a 127-year time series of precipitation and mean temperature data. The core innovation lies in employing the Twelve-Fold Hydrologic Time Series method. By analyzing the data across twelve annual time scales, this approach facilitated a more comprehensive and precise characterization of drought features, effectively revealing long-duration events often masked in conventional annual analyses. The results derived from the transition probability matrix indicated that extreme climatic states (severe drought and extreme wet periods) exhibit significant persistence, whereas intermediate states (moderate drought and moderate wet periods) are inherently more transient. Furthermore, the calculation of the steady-state distribution provided a clear perspective on the long-term behavior of the climatic system. The findings reveal that, in the long run, the combined probability of residing in drought states (severe and moderate), totaling 42%, is higher than the probability of residing in wet states (38%). These results yield invaluable insights for strategic, long-term planning in water resource management and facilitate effective adaptation strategies against future climatic conditions in arid and semi-arid regions.

Abstract Ensuring the accuracy of precipitation data in arid and semi-arid regions, which inherently face a scarcity of ground monitoring stations, is vital for sustainable water resource management and drought assessment. GPPs offer a promising alternative; however, they suffer from systematic biases and inherent uncertainties in estimating extreme values, limiting their direct application in hydrological models. This study aims to develop and evaluate a machine learning-based fusion model to generate a corrected daily precipitation product (ML-Corrected) and assess its efficacy in improving meteorological drought monitoring in South Khorasan Province, a representative arid and data-scarce region. To this end, four widely used GPPs were utilized alongside four spatiotemporal auxiliary variables (latitude, longitude, month, and day of year) as inputs for a RF model. Daily observational precipitation data from six synoptic stations (2010–2019) served as the target variable for model training and validation. Results indicated that the ML-Corrected product demonstrated absolute statistical superiority over all raw GPPs. In daily precipitation assessment, the ML-Corrected product achieved the highest correlation coefficient (median CC=0.87), the lowest error (median RMSE=0.78 mm/day), and the best success index (median CSI=0.545). More importantly, in drought monitoring assessment, the SPI time series derived from the ML-Corrected product (at both 3-month and 12-month scales) exhibited the highest agreement (median R2 > 0.81) and lowest error (median RMSE < 0.40) compared to observed SPI. These findings prove that the machine learning-based fusion approach acts as an intelligent error corrector, significantly reducing GPP uncertainty and providing a reliable precipitation dataset for water crisis management.

Abstract Water challenges in Iranian cities—particularly in metropolises located in arid and semi-arid climates—have emerged as one of the most critical governance issues. In this context, concepts such as “water-friendly cities” and “water-sensitive cities” have been introduced as innovative urban management approaches that emphasize alignment with natural water cycles, active citizen participation, shifts in decision-makers’ cognitive frameworks, and the reform of consumption patterns. Meanwhile, creative industries, as key drivers of knowledge-based economies and social innovation, hold significant potential to influence water consumption behaviors, foster effective public engagement, and enhance societal awareness. Adopting a conceptual and policy-oriented perspective, this analytical note explores the interconnections between creative industries, water-related behavioral practices, social innovation, and the water-sensitive city paradigm in Iran. With a particular focus on the experience of Mashhad as a major metropolis, the paper examines the city’s capacities and potentials for transitioning toward a water-friendly urban model. The experiences implemented in Mashhad are also reviewed as a model for replication in other cities and as a foundation for consolidation and further development in the coming years, ensuring that amid the country’s immediate priorities, the pressing water challenges of today and tomorrow are not overlooked.

Abstract The expansion of urbanization and increased impervious surfaces have led to higher peak discharge and flood volume in urban areas. Therefore, managing surface runoff in cities using BMP/LID strategies has become increasingly important. This study examines the impact of a storage basin on runoff management for the Delavaran, Sarafrazan, Chaharcheshmeh, and Ab-o-Barq watersheds within the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUM) campus and its role in supplying part of the irrigation water demand for the campus’s green spaces. The SWMM rainfall-runoff model was employed for runoff simulation, and model calibration was conducted considering the factors affecting peak discharge. Due to the absence of hydrometric stations, rainfall and peak discharge for 18 rainfall events from October 2023 to October 2024 were measured, and the model was calibrated using the first 13 events. In the validation stage, the average evaluation criteria for the subsequent five events were 2.5, 0.9, and 0.92, respectively. Additionally, the FUM campus's design of a flood storage reservoir with dimensions of 10×40×200 meters demonstrated that it could supply 190,000 cubic meters of the 320,000 cubic meters required for irrigating the campus’s green spaces during the study period. The construction of this reservoir is expected to reduce peak flood discharge by up to 38%, decrease the total annual flood volume by 10% at the FUM campus outlet, and supply more than half of the irrigation water needed for the campus green spaces.

Abstract Land subsidence is one of the most serious geotechnical hazards affecting urban areas and plains that experience intensive groundwater exploitation. The phenomenon is primarily triggered by groundwater‑level decline and the consequent stress redistribution within the soil profile, posing a significant threat to infrastructure. This paper presents a comprehensive literature review of recent research on laboratory techniques and numerical modeling approaches used for the analysis and prediction of subsidence. Laboratory investigations, particularly physical modeling at various scales, reproduce field conditions in a controlled environment, allowing the assessment of soil behavior under different stress states and groundwater drawdown. Numerical models, implemented through finite‑element, distinct‑element, and coupled methods, are capable of simulating subsidence over large spatial extents and within complex geological settings. The synthesis of the reviewed studies demonstrates that integrating laboratory data with numerical simulations markedly improves prediction accuracy and deepens the understanding of subsidence mechanisms. Key strategies include improving the quality of input data, developing more accurate constitutive models for fine‑grained soils, employing remote‑sensing tools for model validation, and integrating intelligent, machine learning based models. These methods provide a pathway for developing more precise approaches to managing and reducing the risk of subsidence.

Abstract In this study, changes and fluctuations in annual and seasonal precipitation in Iran over a 60-year period (1961 to 2020) were investigated with the aim of investigating the impact of climate differences on the trend of annual and seasonal precipitation changes. Precipitation data from 33 synoptic stations in the country, representing diverse climates, were analyzed in two 30-year and one 60-year periods, at both annual and seasonal scales. The nonparametric Mann-Kendall test and the Sen’s-slope method were used to assess the trend of changes and the intensity of changes. The results showed that annual and seasonal precipitation in most climates lacked a significant long-term trend. In the first period, the largest number of stations (9stations) with a significant decreasing trend at the 95 % level was observed in the spring (with an average of -1.320 mm/year). While in the second period, the largest number of stations (7stations) with a significant decreasing trend was observed in the winter season (with an average of -1.054 mm/year). While in the summer and autumn seasons in the second period, no significant trend was observed in any station. The average annual rainfall during the 60-year statistical period of the studied stations is decreasing by about -0.65 mm/year. While the trend of annual rainfall decrease is statistically significant only at the level of 5 stations. Considering the fluctuations or heterogeneous changes in rainfall in different seasons and climates, the necessity of paying attention to local, seasonal and climatic characteristics of rainfall in water resources and agricultural planning is emphasized.

Abstract The dependence of the residents' livelihoods on  agriculture in the Roshtkhar Plain and the increase in population have caused the indiscriminate extraction from deep wells, as the main source of water supply. The result of which was a severe drop in the water level and a critical situation in the Roshtkhar aquifer. In order to reduce the crisis, several management activities have been carried out, including the installation of smart meters (SMs) on the wells in 2015, as a subset of the rehabilitation and balancing plan. Investigating the trend of changes in 20-year hydrographs of observation wells, as well as calculated operation hours and energy consumption of their corresponding selected agricultural wells, and the graphs of the changes in energy consumption and operation hours shows a considerable decrease in the slope of the water level changes trend line after installing the SMs, compared to before installation. So that, in observation wells, which have continuous and correct statistics, there was an average decrease of 46.4% in the drop of water level after SMs installation. In addition, with installing SMs, the actual working hours and energy consumption of the selected wells have decreased by 11.7% and 22.8%, respectively, for the two similar time periods before and after installation. Due to the severe to very severe drought conditions in Roshtkhar over the past 10 years, the climate situation did not have much effect on reducing energy consumption and operating hours of wells, as well as improving the trend of water level changes.

Abstract Evapotranspiration estimation is one of the most important water balance components and involves various complexities. In general, energy balance models are divided into two categories: single-source and two-source models. Choosing a model to estimate ET from among the existing energy balance models is challenging because each model has strengths and limitations. The goal of the present research is to introduce and compare several evapotranspiration estimation methods, including Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) model, Mapping EvapoTranspiration at high Resolution with Internalized Calibration (METRIC) model, Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) model, Simpled Surface Energy Balance Index (S-SEBI) model, Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEBop) model— Two- Source (soil + canopy) (TSM) model and Two-Source Time Integrated (TSTIM) model. Some advantages of the single-source energy balance model S_SEBI include the following: It is possible to implement it using only images without the need for weather data. Therefore, if the number of meteorological stations in the area is low, this method can be utilized. No need for a land use map. One disadvantage of this model is that it can only be used in cases where atmospheric conditions across the entire image are constant. Due to the simplicity and lower complexity of the structure and assumptions of the SSEBop model, it has increased operational capability for calculating actual evapotranspiration over large areas. However, it is not recommended for regions with heterogeneous vegetation cover, mountainous areas, high albedo regions, or high levels of radiation, and in such areas, the TSEB algorithm is recommended. Due to some errors and uncertainties in these surface energy balance models, extensive studies are required to overcome these limitations.

Abstract Investigating aquifers and determining the alluvial and karst aquifers interaction, especially in the border areas of the country, is very important. With geoelectrical methods (Vertical Electrical Sounding -VES), it is possible to determine the subsurface geological layering, aquifer layers, the depth to bedrock and the apparent resistivity (ρa) of the geological layers. In this paper, by performing 40 VES in the northern plain of Darghz Allah Akbar Heights (DAH), calculating the ρa of the layers and interpreting the geoelectrical sections, the aquifers up to the depth of 350 meters and the relationship between alluvial and Tirgan karstic aquifer (TKA) have been investigated. The results show the presence of alluvial aquifers up to 20 meters depth in the south, east and west of Chapeshlo, north and northwest of Daghdar and west of Dargaz industrial town, as well as the presence of deep karstic aquifers in the southeast of Chapeshlo, northeast of Sugandi, north of Gandab, and west of Daghdar. The changes in ρa and the depth to bedrock show that there is not much relationship between the alluvial and TKA. Considering the absence of highly discharged springs around DAH and the low thickness of the alluvial aquifer, it can be concluded that most groundwater of the TKA, except in limited places at the foot of the DAH (Cheholmir and Cherlaq areas) has little effect on feeding of alluvial aquifer of Daragaz southern plain, and due to the barrier function of the deeper fine-grained layers, the groundwater flow paths are towards the depths or Dorbadam and Shamkhal valleys.

Abstract Considering the close relationship between hydrological, ecological and socio-economic systems with groundwater reliability, in order to implement policies, laws and management guidelines of reliability concepts in order to reduce the deterioration of water resources and ecosystem, it is necessary to explain integrated management in water resources management. If there are no collaborative processes, it will definitely face a serious problem. As a result, a wider gap is created between water activists, scientists and society to define and achieve groundwater reliability. Various aspects of the concept of groundwater reliability are discussed and this concept is explained based on hydrological principles for more collaborative and integrated approaches in order to achieve water security. This research focuses on identifying diverse social values related to groundwater reliability, methodology of aquifer efficiency factors and governance factors. In addition, a systematic review of the main components of scientific assessment affecting sustainable groundwater policy, including multi-process modeling, uncertainty analysis, and participation, is reviewed. The effective implementation of groundwater policies requires an explanation of integrated management and a collaborative process between surface water systems, groundwater, ecosystems and human activities, including uncertainty analysis and adaptive management and local knowledge and social preferences and regional conditions.

Abstract Shallow alluvial aquifers in watersheds with multiple rivers experience complex hydrological and hydraulic interactions among different subsystems, such as the aerated zone, groundwater, and surface water. In such aquifers, combining hydrological models of surface water and groundwater is crucial for accurately simulating and describing these processes. This study focused on developing and evaluating the MIKE SHE integrated hydrological model and the MIKE 11 hydrodynamic model to simulate hydrological and hydraulic processes in the Foumanat aquifer. To establish a dependable model, groundwater levels and river flow were concurrently calibrated at the control points of observation wells and hydrometric stations within the study area. Calibration was performed based on sensitivity analysis, utilizing parameters such as saturated hydraulic conductivity, leakage coefficients, and Manning's roughness coefficient. Despite the natural heterogeneity of the region, the model demonstrated satisfactory performance, yielding an absolute error of less than one for groundwater level estimation and less than 0.5 for flow rate estimation at the hydrometric stations. During the wet season (October to March), the combined evaporation and transpiration (ETa) amounts to 0.4 times the total rainfall. In contrast, during the dry season (April to September), the combined evaporation and transpiration (ETa) equates to 7.3 times the total rainfall, emerging as the main contributor to water loss. These findings apply to a dry year, implying that these ratios would increase in dry and average years. 

Abstract The decrease in rainfall and the increase in demand for limited water resources show the necessity of supplying water from non-conventional sources. In this research, the possibility of harvesting water from fog in the Abi-beyglu region, which is the main place where moist winds from the Caspian Sea enter the Ardabil plain, was investigated. First, by examining local observations and meteorological parameters, the possibility of harvesting fog water was investigated in terms of different geographical and climatic factors, and then by installing a standard fog collector, the amount of extracted water was measured daily. The results of the investigation of meteorological parameters indicate suitable conditions for the implementation of the fog water harvesting system in the region. The high average relative humidity (more than 70%) throughout the year, the high number of foggy days (more than a third of the year), as well as the appropriate wind speed (4.6 m/s on average) and its high frequency showed that there is a high potential in collecting fog entering the region. The average daily water collected during the foggy period was equal to 3.6 liters per square meter, which shows an acceptable value compared to the results of similar projects. In general, according to the quantitative and qualitative values of collected water, the implementation of fog water harvesting plans in the region is justified and therefore part of the water needs of the region can be provided.

Abstract Water supply with new methods has always been emphasized by researchers and statesmen. Water scarcity and droughts in recent years in Iran have pushed the agricultural approach from traditional methods to modern methods, especially greenhouse cultivation. The advantages of this cultivation in reducing the wastage of energy and water, as well as the possibility of controlling pests and diseases, have led to an increase in the use of this method in the country. Nowadays, the use of solar panels as the roof of the structure to provide renewable energy has also been added to this process. In this research, the construction of a greenhouse structure with a roof covered with organic solar panels with south-direction and east-west orientations has been investigated by selecting a part in the Bashagard area of Hormozgan province. Modeling using PVSol software showed that the energy produced from these two types of east-west and south-direction coverage is 54293565 and 43697736-kilowatt hours per year, respectively. In addition to the aspect of energy production, based on the estimations, the roof slope was used and a piping system was created to collect rainwater in the study area, about 7500 cubic meters of rainwater was collected, which is about 4% of the amount of water consumed in this greenhouse complex.

Abstract Fresh water availability and its shortage is one of the most important issues in the world today that some countries are facing. In the last two decades, Kabul province, Afghanistan, has seen a decrease in water resources under the influence of natural and human factors. The purpose of this research is to use satellite data and remote sensing techniques to investigate changes in surface and underground water resources in Kabul province. For this purpose, the satellite data and products available in the Google Earth Engine in the period 2000 to 2022 and the climate data of ground stations in the period 2006 to 2021 have been used, which include: evaporation data- Transpiration, Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), Global Product of Surface Water Areas (JRC), GRACE data, OLS Satellite Night Images, Sentinel 2 Satellite Image, Landsat 7 Satellite Image, Temperature, Humidity and Rainfall Data. The change process of the used data was analyzed through the Mann-Kendall test and the significance level of these data was checked. The supervised classification method was used on the two mentioned images to calculate the area of vegetation, water area, residential areas, and barren lands. The obtained results show the reduction of underground water resources (significant reduction trend of GRACE satellite data) and the reduction of the surface water area changes in Kabul province, under the influence of natural and human factors, which among these factors can reduce He pointed out the amount of rainfall, increase in temperature, increase in evaporation-transpiration, increase in the level of vegetation and physical development of Kabul city and increase in the population using water resources.

Abstract The aim of this study is to estimate and analyze the spatiotemporal changes in the baseflow of 266 rivers across Iran in a 30-year period (1987-2017) in order to determine the degree of influence of groundwater sources and snowmelt in the studied rivers. The daily baseflows were separated from the streamflows recorded at the hydrometric stations using the Chapman-Maxwell digital filter method. A non-parametric Mann-Kendall test was used to analyze the baseflow time trend, and Moran's I spatial autocorrelation index was used to analyze the spatial autocorrelation of baseflow and baseflow index (baseflow ratio to streamflow). The monthly analysis of baseflow showed a regular seasonal pattern with the highest and lowest values of 9.08 and 1.95 million cubic meters per month, corresponding to the months of April and September, respectively. The results of the baseflow index showed that the share of baseflow in the surface water supply of the studied rivers is between 0.15% and 0.99% (72% on average). The results of the long-term trend of the baseflow indicated that 83.08% of the rivers experienced a significant downward trend (at a level of 0.95) in the studied period. The findings of the spatial autocorrelation test confirmed that there are several clusters with high baseflow and baseflow indexes in the Zagros and Alborz mountain ranges. The results of this research can provide a general picture of the temporal and spatial changes in the baseflow of rivers at the scale of the country and provide outstanding help to decision-makers in order to achieve integrated management of surface water resources.

Abstract Iran is located in an arid and semi-arid region, where a large part of its water needs is provided by groundwater resources. In severe and prolonged periods of drought when it is not possible to supply water from surface water resources; Groundwater will be the only source of water supply. Not paying attention to demand management and not controlling over-harvesting during the drought period can further reduce the groundwater storage. Preventive strategies are necessary to reduce the effects of drought and protect groundwater. But unfortunately, most of the strategies to reduce the destructive effects of drought are passive (or reactive) and seek to supply water shortages from groundwater resources during the drought period, and attention to the active strategies of combined groundwater-drought management has been neglected. Therefore, due to the increase of severe and long-term droughts under climate change, it is necessary to pay attention to active strategies and new approaches. Demand management and harvesting reduction as a proactive approach can reserve groundwater in normal and wet years and increase drought resistance by preserving underground resources and ensure water supply security during severe droughts. This article is compiled in two parts in order to explain this approach. The first part describes the planning of related organizations for the combined management of drought and groundwater, and in the second part, the new approaches implemented in California as well as its application in Iran are explained.

Abstract Editorial:
The effectiveness of the groundwater restoration and balancing plan
Hamidreza Naseri/ member of the editorial board

Short note:
Effective implementation of the restoration and balancing plan of the country's underground water resources
Javad Meybodi/former director general of the water exploitation and protection systems office of the Ministry of Energy

Short note:
Santa Clara groundwater balancing; "Achieving groundwater balancing is not an event; Rather, it is a completely complex evolutionary process.
Hossein Ashketorab/ Director of Santa Clara Water Department (California)

Abstract Groundwater monitoring networks provide important data which are necessary to understand the dynamics of hydrogeological systems. Since the cost of the installation and maintenance of groundwater monitoring networks is extremely high, optimal design and the assessment of the effectiveness of the monitoring networks is necessary. This paper presents the application of a newly developed geostatistical method based on the acceptance probability concept, to optimize the existing network of observation wells in the Shirvan alluvial aquifer, located in North Khorasan province. To this aim, by choosing a suitable semi-variogram and using ordinary kriging, the acceptance probability in the aquifer was calculated. Then, based on the spatial pattern of groundwater level, the acceptance probability was calculated for various parts of the aquifer and the acceptance accuracy values were analyzed at different levels of probability. The results showed that based on the existing observation wells network, 19.2% of the aquifer area has a very high acceptance accuracy. On the other hand, by modifying the network of existing observation wells and adding suggested points, 46.7% of the aquifer area will have a very high acceptance accuracy. Therefore, the installation of new observation wells in the proper locations will increase the accuracy acceptance and improve the efficiency of the observation well network.

Abstract In arid and semi-arid regions, a major share of rainfall never reaches streams or groundwater. This part which is known as rainfall loss can play a decisive role in river flow or groundwater recharge. Rainfall losses are used in many hydrological models as one of the basic forecasting components. In this study, the components of the hydrological losses including interception, evapotranspiration, infiltration, and soil moisture have been reviewed, as well as the characteristics of the mentioned components, general concepts, conducted studies, and also the comparison of the useful calculation methods of these components of hydrological losses was reviewed.  The review of the studies shows that due to the complex and stochastic nature of the rainfall process and the many factors affecting it, rainfall losses have not yet been comprehensively understood and in many simulations, it is enough to simplify the systems by considering infiltration as a loss function.  As a result, in practical applications, fixed values for losses are often used and this simplification leads to a sort of inaccurate runoff simulation. Therefore, firstly, it is recommended to pay attention to the time and place format in the existing rainfall loss models and even their concepts and secondly, more consideration should be paid to the interrelationships among components,  because, for example, in the daily time scale, a component such as transpiration may become less important than in long-term time periods, or in an urban watershed due to human manipulation, the loss processes may not be similar to natural watersheds.

Abstract The aquifer reclamation project has been developed and implemented by the Ministry of Energy with the aim of stopping the overdraft of groundwater resources. It is not possible to evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation of this project in many Iranian aquifers due to the lack of complete implementation of the project or the lack of sufficient information. The study area of the Ardestan is one of the pilot plains for the implementation of the aquifer reclamation in Isfahan province, in which, according to the available data, it is possible to evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation of this project. For this purpose, the quantitative data of the Ardestan aquifer between 2001 and 2021 were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the reclamation project. The results show that the slope of the water table curve has improved relatively in the years after reclamation, and natural factors have had the greatest impact on this improvement. In other words, the amount of groundwater saved due to reclamation shows a negligible effect on the quantity of groundwater in terms of quantity, time, and place. The review of the implementation of the reclamation projects in the Ardestan shows that the performance in some projects was zero and in other cases, the projects were implemented incompletely. Finally, the implementation of each of the projects has been analyzed based on the available data, and the reasons for the failure of the rehabilitation and balancing plan's effectiveness have been investigated.

Abstract The restoration and resilience project with the aim of compensating for the reservoir deficit and preventing the decline of the aquifers is being developed by the Ministry of Energy with various projects and is being implemented throughout Iran. The implementation of restoration and resilience projects in the forbidden plain of Qaleh Tol, northeast of Khuzestan, has started since 2017. The evaluation of the implemented plans, saving 1.7 million cubic meters per year (about 14% reduction in the exploitation of groundwater) has been done by comparing the fluctuations of the groundwater level of the plain before and after the implementation of the plan. The results showed that the amount of changes in the reservoir level and the volume of Qaleh Tol aquifer in the water year 2021-2022, which is in the dry period along with the implementation of restoration and balancing projects in the region, is positive and equal to 0.41 meters and 1.8 million cubic meters, respectively. Based on this, while during the drought period of 2021-2022, most of the plains of Khuzestan province have faced a drop in the reservoir level and reservoir deficit, however, the groundwater level has risen in Qaleh Tol plain, which can be due to the positive effects of the implementation of the projects. Due to the intermittent years with more rainfall than normal and drought, it is not possible to comment with certainty regarding the effects of project implementation on the aquifer balance, and the clear role of the effect on the representative hydrograph is not certain due to the short-term fluctuations of water level changes.

Abstract Increasing exploitation of groundwater has caused problems such as water table drops and declining in the country's aquifer storage volume.  The multiplicity of these problems has led to various programs for rehabilitating and balancing of groundwater resources. One of these strategies is to install a smart meter on the exploitation wells. Shahriar plain aquifer is one of the aquifers in Iran which has caused numerous problems in this aquifer. In this study, after examining the characteristics of the Shahriar plain aquifer and monthly changes in groundwater level in the statistical course from 2011 to 2019, the effect of installing a smart meter on groundwater level fluctuations was analyzed. The study area was divided into three sections with a high number, medium, and low smart meter installations. A separate representative hydrograph was prepared for each section. The results of the analysis of maps and hydrographs indicated that in the period after installing the smart meter, the slope of groundwater level fluctuations in the area with a high number of smart meters is similar to the slope and the trend of groundwater level fluctuations in the area with a low number of smart meters; Therefore, installing smart meters on exploitation wells, through current methods and policies, cannot be a suitable approach for sustainable management of groundwater resources; Because installing smart meter without limiting the amount of overdraft does not have a positive effect on aquifer regeneration and balancing. In this research, other balancing measures performed in the study area were reviewed.