Journal of Water and Sustainable Development

Abstract There is a two-way relationship between national security and food security. The extent to which a country's ecological capacity is taken into account in defining national security, and conversely, the extent to which food security - especially with an emphasis on self-sufficiency in basic products - can support national security - is part of this two-way process.












 

 




 

Abstract The expansion of urbanization and increased impervious surfaces have led to higher peak discharge and flood volume in urban areas. Therefore, managing surface runoff in cities using BMP/LID strategies has become increasingly important. This study examines the impact of a storage basin on runoff management for the Delavaran, Sarafrazan, Chaharcheshmeh, and Ab-o-Barq watersheds within the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUM) campus and its role in supplying part of the irrigation water demand for the campus’s green spaces. The SWMM rainfall-runoff model was employed for runoff simulation, and model calibration was conducted considering the factors affecting peak discharge. Due to the absence of hydrometric stations, rainfall and peak discharge for 18 rainfall events from October 2023 to October 2024 were measured, and the model was calibrated using the first 13 events. In the validation stage, the average evaluation criteria for the subsequent five events were 2.5, 0.9, and 0.92, respectively. Additionally, the FUM campus's design of a flood storage reservoir with dimensions of 10×40×200 meters demonstrated that it could supply 190,000 cubic meters of the 320,000 cubic meters required for irrigating the campus’s green spaces during the study period. The construction of this reservoir is expected to reduce peak flood discharge by up to 38%, decrease the total annual flood volume by 10% at the FUM campus outlet, and supply more than half of the irrigation water needed for the campus green spaces.

Abstract Food security is one of the most significant challenges of the 21st century, influenced by factors such as population growth, climate change, water crises, and political conflicts. Ensuring sufficient and sustainable food supply requires effective management of these challenges and the adoption of appropriate policies. This study, using a descriptive-analytical approach and library research sources, examines the impact of climate change, water resources, and political instability on food security. Climate change has led to fluctuations in rainfall, rising temperatures, and declining water resources, directly affecting agricultural production and food supply. Reduced water availability, frequent droughts, and shifting rainfall patterns have decreased agricultural productivity and disrupted food supply chains. Moreover, wars and political instability pose a serious threat to food security by destroying agricultural infrastructure, reducing production levels, and disrupting supply chains. Conflicts also lead to large-scale population displacement, further straining food resources. Ultimately, food security is not only an economic and environmental challenge but also a strategic and political issue. Addressing it requires precise policy-making, comprehensive planning, and international cooperation to mitigate threats and ensure sustainable access to food.

Abstract The Darkhoveyn water treatment plant supplies drinking water to the cities of Darkhoveyn, Shadegan, and surrounding villages. Its inflow is provided both gravitationally from the Dez diversion dam via the Ghadir Khuzestan water transmission system and simultaneously by pumping from the Karun River. After being combined in a mixing basin, the water enters clarifiers and is then transferred to the treatment plant. This study, using simulation in WaterGEMS software, conducts a hydraulic analysis and investigates a practical and feasible solution to separate and directly transfer the Ghadir water during incidents such as rainfall, river flooding, and seasonal turbidity events. To achieve this, a direct branch was connected from the Ghadir water transmission pipeline at the entry point of the Darkhoveyn facilities to the inlet of the treatment plant, and its optimal size was determined to maintain the pre-branch hydraulic conditions. The results from hourly measured turbidity values showed that after implementing the new branch, due to a 50% reduction in the volume of water entering the clarifiers and an increase in the retention time, the turbidity of the water exiting the clarifiers decreased by 25%. This is of great significance for the operation and maintenance of the clarifiers. Furthermore, based on the results, the turbidity of the water entering the treatment plant was reduced by 50%, and under conditions where no water is drawn from the river, 52% of the required water for the cities and surrounding villages can be supplied through the proposed solution using the Ghadir water transmission system.

Abstract The construction of erosion-controlling structures like spur dikes can unintentionally create local flow structures, leading to downstream flow affecting the channel bed upstream of the spur dike. This can result in shear layers, turbulence, localized erosion, and threats to the spur dike structure. Therefore, studying the placement of spur dikes in proximity under different hydraulic conditions is crucial for enhancing the design of these structures. In this study, the three-dimensional flow field around river spur dikes in grouped configurations was numerically analyzed using Fluent software to explore how the spacing of spur dikes influences the hydraulic behavior of the flow. The findings suggest that increasing the distance between spur dikes reduces the length of vortices. On average, the bed shear stress decreased to 0.6 N/m² at a distance ratio of Li/LAP equal to 5, and to 0.13 N/m² at a ratio of 7. Furthermore, at a distance ratio of 4 and flow velocities of 0.345, 0.7, and 1.2 m/s, the maximum bed shear stress was found to be 0.6, 2.6, and 7 N/m², respectively. This indicates the direct impact of flow velocity on the intensity of erosional phenomena on the bed. The reduction in bed shear stress suggests that as the distance between the spur dikes increases, the interactive effects of vortices and the intensification of shear stresses on the bed significantly decrease.

Abstract Land subsidence is one of the most serious geotechnical hazards affecting urban areas and plains that experience intensive groundwater exploitation. The phenomenon is primarily triggered by groundwater‑level decline and the consequent stress redistribution within the soil profile, posing a significant threat to infrastructure. This paper presents a comprehensive literature review of recent research on laboratory techniques and numerical modeling approaches used for the analysis and prediction of subsidence. Laboratory investigations, particularly physical modeling at various scales, reproduce field conditions in a controlled environment, allowing the assessment of soil behavior under different stress states and groundwater drawdown. Numerical models, implemented through finite‑element, distinct‑element, and coupled methods, are capable of simulating subsidence over large spatial extents and within complex geological settings. The synthesis of the reviewed studies demonstrates that integrating laboratory data with numerical simulations markedly improves prediction accuracy and deepens the understanding of subsidence mechanisms. Key strategies include improving the quality of input data, developing more accurate constitutive models for fine‑grained soils, employing remote‑sensing tools for model validation, and integrating intelligent, machine learning based models. These methods provide a pathway for developing more precise approaches to managing and reducing the risk of subsidence.

Abstract Water shortage is one of the greatest challenges of the current century, especially in arid and semi-arid areas. It is the source of many positive and negative changes in the world. Globally, irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer of groundwater. The return flow is the excess of irrigation water that returns to the groundwater table as a result of deep penetration. The amount of return flow to the groundwater tables has been reported between 2% and more than 70% and in Iran, its average value is between 0.8% and 17.1%, depending on the climatic conditions of the region, topography, soil and the irrigation method and water used. The current paper has reviewed the various research conducted in the field of return flow, its importance and amount in arid and semi-arid areas such as Iran and other countries and the impact of using modern irrigation systems on it. Generally, the return flow amount under modern irrigation systems (drip irrigation, sprinkler, etc.) is significantly reduced compared to flood irrigation methods, when deficit irrigation is not applied, and this also reduces groundwater pollution and soil salinity in areas prone to pollution. Additionally, compared to full irrigation, using the deficit-irrigation method, the amount of return flow will be reduced.

Abstract Water scarcity in Tehran, within Iran's arid and semi-arid climate, has become a lasting crisis, with domestic water consumption trends indicating a potential annual deficit. Traditional solutions like dam construction and new water source extraction are increasingly inadequate. Consequently, researchers focus on altering consumer behavior through innovative strategies such as social marketing. This study employs the SHIFT theory, a modern behavioral change model for sustainability, to create a tool that identifies factors influencing household water consumption. The core dimensions of the SHIFT theory provide a framework for understanding sustainable behavior determinants. In the initial phase, a questionnaire was developed based on SHIFT theory variables, and content validity was evaluated by 14 experts from the water sector and academia. The second phase involved pre-testing and refining the questionnaire using responses from 135 domestic water consumers. After adjustments, the final questionnaire was distributed online, collecting 1,019 responses, 924 from Tehran residents. Partial Least Squares (PLS) analysis was performed using SmartPLS3 software. Results showed that emotions and descriptive norms significantly influence household water consumption behaviors. In particular, negative emotions associated with high water usage and the observed consumption behaviors of others were strong determinants of individual water use.

Abstract In recent decades, due to the growing threats of both natural and man-made origins such as sabotage, terrorism, and modern warfare the security of critical infrastructure, including water supply facilities, has become a strategic priority for many countries. Passive defense, as a set of preventive and non-aggressive measures, plays a significant role in reducing the vulnerability of these infrastructures. This study aims to evaluate the security status of drinking water facilities in a city with a medium population from the perspective of passive defense. The research is descriptive-analytical in nature, utilizing library research, field observations, and statistical analysis. Data were collected through questionnaires distributed 31 experts in the water and wastewater sector, and analyzed using SPSS software. The findings revealed that some key components, such as remote monitoring, environmental safety, and access control, are at an unsatisfactory level and require urgent revision. The study suggests solutions such as employing protective green spaces, enhancing surveillance systems, reinforcing infrastructure, and training specialized personnel to improve the preparedness of water facilities against potential threats.

Abstract The aim of this study is to develop a comprehensive and innovative environmental education curriculum focused on water issues, grounded in the augmented-senses approach and emphasizing the capacities of Iranian Indigenous Knowledge in water resource management and conservation. Designed for lower secondary education levels, the curriculum seeks to enhance students' environmental literacy through sensory-biological experiences, contextual understanding, and active social engagement with national water-related challenges. The study employs a combination of exploratory content analysis, instructional design based on situated cognition theory, and experiential learning principles. The conceptual framework integrates transformative environmental education models, place-based learning, multisensory learning theories, and the epistemological foundations of Iranian Indigenous Knowledge related to water. Historical, ethnographic, and documentary sources on Iran’s water culture were analyzed to identify key elements for multisensory, place-based learning situations. A backward design model was then used to align learning objectives, content standards, and assessment mechanisms with students' cognitive, emotional, and social developmental levels. The developed curriculum incorporates augmented-senses technologies and interactive tools to create immersive sensory learning experiences in both formal and informal settings (e.g., school gardens, water heritage sites, and workshops). It integrates regional water management models through curricular projects, local narratives, and research portfolios, ensuring adaptability to Iran’s climatic, cultural, and pedagogical diversity. The curriculum bridges traditional knowledge with modern education, fostering interdisciplinary, ecologically adaptive, and transformative learning.

Abstract In light of the increasing challenges posed by water scarcity, population growth, climate change, and the urgent need to enhance agricultural productivity, the adoption of advanced technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) in irrigation management is regarded as a transformative approach. This study aims to investigate the role of AI in optimizing irrigation and managing water resources in agriculture by analyzing various dimensions, including the background of irrigation, modern methodologies, data collection and analysis, water allocation algorithms, performance monitoring, challenges, opportunities, and the provision of strategic solutions. Through a systematic review of credible scientific articles, the present research examines technologies such as environmental sensors, the Internet of Things (IoT), machine learning, deep learning, and decision support systems, and evaluates their effectiveness in improving water use efficiency and increasing crop yield. The results indicate that intelligent irrigation systems can reduce water consumption by 20 to 40 percent while enhancing crop performance. Furthermore, the findings reveal that key challenges to the application of AI in smart irrigation management include lack of infrastructure, high initial costs, and insufficient accurate data. Finally, the study proposes recommendations for the localized development of these systems, emphasizing supportive policies, technology localization, and farmer empowerment.

Abstract In this study, changes and fluctuations in annual and seasonal precipitation in Iran over a 60-year period (1961 to 2020) were investigated with the aim of investigating the impact of climate differences on the trend of annual and seasonal precipitation changes. Precipitation data from 33 synoptic stations in the country, representing diverse climates, were analyzed in two 30-year and one 60-year periods, at both annual and seasonal scales. The nonparametric Mann-Kendall test and the Sen’s-slope method were used to assess the trend of changes and the intensity of changes. The results showed that annual and seasonal precipitation in most climates lacked a significant long-term trend. In the first period, the largest number of stations (9stations) with a significant decreasing trend at the 95 % level was observed in the spring (with an average of -1.320 mm/year). While in the second period, the largest number of stations (7stations) with a significant decreasing trend was observed in the winter season (with an average of -1.054 mm/year). While in the summer and autumn seasons in the second period, no significant trend was observed in any station. The average annual rainfall during the 60-year statistical period of the studied stations is decreasing by about -0.65 mm/year. While the trend of annual rainfall decrease is statistically significant only at the level of 5 stations. Considering the fluctuations or heterogeneous changes in rainfall in different seasons and climates, the necessity of paying attention to local, seasonal and climatic characteristics of rainfall in water resources and agricultural planning is emphasized.

Abstract This review study was conducted to investigate the structure, properties, and diverse applications of hydrogels derived from natural polysaccharides—such as cellulose, chitosan, alginate, starch, and pectin—in water purification. The research discusses the primary pollutant removal mechanisms employed by these hydrogels, including adsorption, ion exchange, filtration, and catalytic degradation, which effectively eliminate a wide range of contaminants such as heavy metal ions and dyes. Analysis of various studies indicates that chitosan, due to its amino groups and inherent cationic charge, is an ideal candidate for adsorbing heavy metals and anionic dyes. On the other hand, alginate-based hydrogels are suitable for the encapsulation and selective absorption of certain pollutants, owing to their ease of gel formation with calcium ions and porous structure. Cellulose and its derivatives also show significant potential for developing cost-effective hydrogels, thanks to their abundance, low cost, and presence of active hydroxyl groups. However, the low solubility and limited reactivity of raw cellulose necessitate complex chemical modifications to enhance its performance. Additionally, pectin, as an anionic polysaccharide capable of gelling in the presence of calcium ions, is suitable for absorbing cationic heavy metals. From an economic perspective, starch and cellulose are suitable options for large-scale applications due to their low cost and abundance, whereas chitosan and alginate, despite their better performance, come with higher production costs. According to the findings, among the various types of hydrogels used globally, those based on cellulose, starch, chitosan, and alginate are far more prevalent in scientific research. Given the potential of these hydrogels—including cost-effectiveness, ease of use, facile modifiability, and biodegradability—they can be utilized to remove various pollutants, especially heavy metals and dyes, from aquatic systems.

Abstract The compounding crisis of water scarcity and food insecurity in Iran has evolved into a persistent national security challenge. This analytical brief employs a multi-layered approach, integrating secondary, historical, and analytical data to examine the structural roots of this crisis. The findings reveal that the current predicament is not merely a consequence of climatic drought but is fundamentally rooted in the persistence of an unsustainable management paradigm. The allocation of over 90% of water resources to an inefficient agricultural sector, coupled with a food self-sufficiency policy that disregards ecological constraints, has pushed the country to the brink of "water bankruptcy" and rendered its food security acutely vulnerable. This situation has triggered wide-ranging repercussions across social (environmental migration, social unrest), economic (increased dependence on food imports), and geopolitical (tensions in shared river basins) dimensions. Consequently, overcoming this impasse necessitates a structural shift from a supply-side and infrastructural management approach toward integrated water and food governance. Effectively navigating Iran's water and food crisis, in fact, requires a coordinated and structural strategy founded on five key pillars. These include transforming the governance system for integrated management, realigning economic incentives toward optimal productivity, extensive technological modernization of infrastructure, strengthening the resilience of local communities, and pursuing active water diplomacy at the transboundary level. This integrated framework outlines a practical pathway for addressing current challenges.

Abstract A cursory review of the country’s conditions in previous years underscores the need for a comprehensive analysis of governance policies. One of the most significant factors contributing to the expansion of pollution in water resources is the absence of adequate data and essential information. At the same time, due to a lack of trust on the part of the public sector (as the authority responsible for water resources) toward the research and academic community, access to the required information is either unavailable or fraught with substantial challenges. This situation has, in turn, kept the research sector at a distance from conducting applied studies, in-depth investigations, and root-cause analyses of existing problems. Such an approach stems from a security-oriented view of information and restricted access to it. Policies aimed at achieving near self-sufficiency in agricultural production—despite limited water resources—together with inappropriate support mechanisms for new techniques and technologies in the agricultural sector, have gradually driven the country toward critical conditions with respect to water, soil, and air. Unguided development, or misguided prioritization, has steered changes in national water and soil resources along a path that has resulted in profound and serious challenges, placing the country today in a deep and complex predicament.