Journal of Water and Sustainable Development

Abstract Most readers are undoubtedly familiar with the phrase: "Water is not merely a legacy left to us by our forebears; it is a trust held on behalf of future generations." This statement, long a fixture in Iran’s discourse on water, represents more than just an ethical recommendation; it articulates a fundamental principle of water resource governance: "Each generation acts as a steward of this shared asset, duty-bound to utilize it in a manner that simultaneously upholds the rights of the present generation, future generations, and the environment." In reality, water is not merely a production input, an economic commodity, or even just an ordinary natural resource; rather, it is the foundation of ecosystem vitality, the source of food security, and essential to public health—and in Iran, it constitutes "the basis of sustainability and a critical bottleneck for the country's development." Consequently, water resource management is a matter concerning ethics, public law, and governance, rather than being solely a technical or managerial issue. Although the languages of ethics, law, and governance differ, all three underscore a fundamental truth: water resources are a public asset and an intergenerational trust, and their management must serve the public interest, justice, and the sustainability of the land. In the realm of governance, "institutional conflict of interest" stands as one of the most significant challenges to implementing "good governance." Such conflict arises when institutional mechanisms and structures allow sectoral or organizational interests to take precedence over an institution's core mission. Under these circumstances, even competent managers may inadvertently find themselves making decisions that do not align with the organization's fundamental mission. It can be said that whenever a conflict arises between "water resource conservation" and "other organizational interests," the quality of water governance declines, and public trust is undermined. Consequently, reforming water governance requires the overhaul of institutional mechanisms and structures rather than merely a change of personnel.

Abstract The aim of the research is to investigate and understand the historical and social dimensions of unrest caused by water scarcity and drought in the Sistan region during the Second Pahlavi Period by examining the content of documents from the National Archives and Library of Iran and other archival sources. The research method is historical and descriptive-analytical. Library sources have also been used. The research, based on documents from the National Archives and Library of Iran and other archival sources, seeks to answer the following questions: How did the water scarcity crisis in Sistan during the Second Pahlavi Period turn from a natural problem into social unrest? What role and function can be attributed to government policies, local institutions, and popular actions in this process? And finally, what mechanisms have contributed to the inefficiency of crisis management? The research findings show that during the Pahlavi II period, the Sistan region faced a water crisis caused by the water cut off from the Helmand River by Afghanistan and the ineffectiveness of government policies. This crisis led to social unrest and farmer sit-ins, widespread migration, and reduced food security. The water crisis has not only had environmental consequences, but also numerous political, security, and social consequences. The main cause of the unrest was the structural inefficiency in water resource management, the water cut off by Afghanistan, and the weakness of the Iranian government in responding to the demands of the people of Sistan.

Abstract Given the water scarcity crisis and the influential role of women in shaping household and community consumption patterns, this study aimed to analyze the consequences of women’s behavioral change, shifting from passive consumers to active agents in managing water consumption. The research employed the Grounded Theory approach. Data were collected through 20 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with experts in the fields of water and environmental studies, using purposive and snowball sampling within the framework of theoretical sampling. The consequences were extracted through open, axial, and selective coding, yielding 56 initial codes, 11 concepts, and three subcategories: (1) Empowering women to play an active role in society along the path of sustainable development, (2) Behavioral change and active participation of women for the realization of sustainable development, and (3) Sustainable management of water resources and responsible household consumption. Finally, by identifying the relationships among the categories, a theoretical model was developed. The findings show that the realization of sustainable development requires a shift in policy-making from a focus on physical and infrastructure-based solutions toward a socio-cultural approach based on the empowerment and agency of women. This shift creates the conditions for sustainable water resource management and consumption.

Abstract Urban water governance is increasingly relying on adaptive and integrated systems alongside conventional structural measures. This paper proposes an innovative and integrated spatial decision-making approach to enhance urban water governance. The study emphasizes collaborative stakeholder engagement within a GIS-based multi-criteria decision analysis framework. A decision-support toolbox developed in a Geographic Information System environment employs the Analytic Hierarchy Process. The proposed model integrates spatial analysis and stakeholder participation into a unified spatial planning support system. The results of a case study conducted in Tehran demonstrate the practical applicability of the proposed method in the field of urban water governance. The final flood hazard map classified the study area into six distinct risk levels. Approximately 6% of the area was categorized as very high vulnerability, primarily located in areas characterized by low slopes, high density, and insufficient drainage infrastructure. Classes two and three, representing moderate to high vulnerability, accounted for about 43% of the area, while 42% fell within the low-vulnerability category. Least-cost path analysis, considering land use, slope, and geological criteria, was applied to identify suitable routes for urban runoff collection. The findings indicate that the immediate upgrading of the drainage system in the southeastern areas is essential. The proposed routes, by leveraging existing infrastructure and favorable topography, can reduce construction costs while helping to minimize potential negative economic and social impacts, such as resident displacement. Overall, the proposed model provides a replicable framework for integrating technical, social, and institutional considerations in urban flood governance.

The results of a case study conducted in Tehran demonstrate the practical applicability of the proposed method in the field of urban water governance. The final flood hazard map classified the study area into six distinct risk levels. Approximately 6% of the area was categorized as very high vulnerability, primarily located in areas characterized by low slopes, high density, and insufficient drainage infrastructure. Classes two and three, representing moderate to high vulnerability, accounted for about 43% of the area, while 42% fell within the low-vulnerability category.

Least-cost path analysis, considering land use, slope, and geological criteria, was applied to identify suitable routes for urban runoff collection. The findings indicate that the immediate upgrading of the drainage system in the southeastern areas is essential. The proposed routes, by leveraging existing infrastructure and favorable topography, can reduce construction costs while helping to minimize potential negative economic and social impacts, such as resident displacement. Overall, the proposed model provides a replicable framework for integrating technical, social, and institutional considerations in urban flood governance.

Abstract Land subsidence, as a creeping geomorphic hazard and a direct consequence of the overexploitation of groundwater resources, poses a serious threat to environmental sustainability and water security in arid and semi-arid regions. In this regard, the present study evaluates the impact of groundwater level decline on the rate of subsidence in the Sistan region using Sentinel-1 radar images. This research was conducted using a combined approach, utilizing 54 Sentinel-1 radar images (2014–2022), GRACE data, water level data from 29 piezometric wells, and Landsat 8 images of the Sistan region. The InSAR technique in SNAP software was employed to estimate subsidence, and the Random Forest algorithm (with a Kappa accuracy of 0.95) was used for land use classification. The findings indicate a direct and significant relationship between groundwater decline and subsidence. The average annual rate of groundwater decline increased from 6.5 cm/year in 2015 to 12.7 cm/year in 2017. Concurrently, the average subsidence rate increased from approximately -10 cm/year during 2014–2016 to more than -20 cm/year during 2020–2022. The highest subsidence rate (average -2.33 cm) was concentrated in the agricultural lands of the central and eastern parts of the Sistan Plain. A strong correlation coefficient of 0.82 between InSAR data and piezometric well observations confirms the accuracy of the method. Furthermore, the increase in barren land area between 2014 and 2024 indicates additional pressure on water resources. The overall results showed that the overextraction of water for agriculture is the main driver of subsidence in Sistan. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of integrating Sentinel-1 and GRACE data as an accurate and cost-effective tool for regional subsidence monitoring.

Abstract This study presents a critical systematic review of research on water conflicts in the Kashafrud river basin (Mashhad) and uses a framework-based synthesis to identify analytical and policy shortcomings in the literature. An integrative framework drawing on resource governance theories, historical and sociological institutionalism, game theory, and principal–agent theory was developed and translated into operational coding indicators. Out of 48 identified studies, after removing duplicates and conceptual screening, 14 studies were included for qualitative appraisal. Results show that “historical path dependence” was absent in 11 studies and strong in only 2. For “rules and governance arrangements,” no study scored strong, while 11 were limited and 3 were absent. For “conflict type and level,” only 1 study scored strong and 3 were absent. For “actors and power distribution,” 2 studies were strong and 12 were limited. Moreover, about half of the studies were absent in “representation and stakeholder participation,” and most studies were limited or absent in “cultural and normative dimensions.” Overall, the main weakness is not the lack of problem description, but limited attention to institutional trajectories, the absence of a coherent conflict typology, insufficient measurement of stakeholder power and representation, and weak links between governance rules and operational mechanisms for dispute resolution, enforcement, and accountability. Accordingly, the article proposes three policy steps: developing a conflict typology with a corresponding dispute-resolution package, upgrading a monitorable responsibility–accountability matrix, and reconstructing a decision timeline coupled with mapping institutional bottlenecks.

Abstract This study analyzes the alignment between water governance systems in ten arid, transboundary river basins, the Nile River, Murray-Darling, Lake Chad, Indus River, Helmand River, Mekong River, Colorado River, Jordan River, Volta River, and Aral Sea, and the economic and social dimensions of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The results indicate that water governance in these basins is significantly influenced by political relations of countries; however, the existence of water treaties has frequently helped mitigate tensions and promote sustainable resource management. The establishment of joint institutions and participatory mechanisms also plays a key factor in strengthening regional cooperation and ensuring justice in water distribution. From an economic perspective, in the Murray-Darling and Colorado basins, the implementation of water markets and price rationalization have enhanced alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 8: Sustainable Economic Growth). In contrast, the continuation of subsidy policies, the lack of real pricing and transboundary challenges in the Helmand, Lake Chad, Aral, Nile and Mekong basins have weakened local economies and hindered the optimal allocation of water resources. From a social perspective, inequality in water access and limited stakeholder participation in decision-making the Helmand, Chad, and Aral basins have exacerbated social conflicts and reduced the resilience of local communities. Overall, the observed patterns suggest that achieving effective water governance and sustainable development in arid regions with transboundary river basins requires strengthening cross-border cooperation, reforming economic policies to establish a circular economy within basin boundaries,  the restructuring of organizational communication and decision-making frameworks centered on water conservation and security, and the institutionalization of inclusive engagement for both domestic and international stakeholders.

Abstract The water crisis in arid and semi-arid countries such as Iran has transcended a mere environmental challenge to become a complex socio-economic issue, influencing demographic patterns and national security. This study aims to analyze the causal relationship between the water crisis and internal migration (2011–2023) and to quantify its impact on food security, employing an applied, descriptive-analytical method using panel data from 31 provinces. Data were collected from official and satellite sources and analyzed using panel econometric methods and spatial analysis. The findings reveal a significant, positive, and escalating causal relationship between excessive groundwater extraction and out-migration from agriculture-dependent provinces. On average, each increase of one million cubic meters in groundwater withdrawal adds 0.05% to net population outflows. The number of provinces caught in the vicious "water-migration" cycle has increased, and the cultivated area under strategic crops has declined by more than 20% in some regions. The migration pattern exhibits positive spatial autocorrelation; out-migration from a crisis-stricken province intensifies migration to neighboring provinces. Spatial analysis identifies the provinces of Isfahan, Kerman, Razavi Khorasan, Yazd, and Fars as hotspots of compounded crisis (critical origins), while Tehran, Alborz, Gilan, and Mazandaran are identified as primary migration destinations. Consequently, the water crisis has evolved into a "multi-dimensional security crisis" threatening water security, food production capacity, demographic stability, and territorial balance. Formulating a "National Strategic Document on Water, Food, and Population" centered on integrated governance, land-use planning based on water carrying capacity, and the development of low-water-dependent economies is essential. The main limitation of this study is its reliance on macro-level secondary data and the use of proxy indicators to measure the complexities of food security.

Abstract Industrial pollution, excessive exploitation, and unsustainable management of water resources have not only degraded aquatic ecosystems and reduced biodiversity but have also generated significant consequences for public health, social security, and economic development. This article addresses the central question of whether the existing frameworks of international law possess the necessary capacity to effectively prevent and respond to destructive acts against water resources. The research hypothesizes that the current international legal system, despite the existence of various treaties and dispersed legal instruments, lacks sufficient capacity to criminalize and ensure effective accountability for such acts. Employing an analytical-documentary methodology, the study draws upon statistical data, reports issued by international organizations, and case studies from critical regions around the world. The analysis of international legal instruments further reveals significant structural gaps and deficiencies in the identification, prevention, and punishment of destructive acts targeting water resources. The article concludes that the existing legal frameworks are inadequate to address the complex and transnational dimensions of this phenomenon. It argues that the explicit and autonomous criminalization of destructive acts against water resources at the international level constitutes a necessary prerequisite for the effective protection of these resources and for safeguarding fundamental human rights.

Abstract The use of cultured fish in unconventional water resources, including saline water, reclaimed water, and industrial effluents, has emerged as a promising strategy for enhancing aquaculture production and strengthening food security. Owing to the availability and diversity of these alternative water resources, particularly in regions facing freshwater scarcity, their utilization can alleviate pressure on conventional freshwater ecosystems while improving environmental sustainability. This review examines the opportunities and challenges associated with the application of unconventional water resources in aquaculture. The focus is on water quality, including salinity and contaminant concentrations, and its critical role in fish growth and survival. Research shows that some species, such as native fish, can be somewhat resistant to high salinity and pollution-induced stresses. The study also emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary research and the development of new technologies in optimizing farming conditions. It also provides solutions to reduce negative environmental impacts and improve economic profitability. The study showed that sustainable exploitation of unconventional water resources in aquaculture requires a comprehensive approach that can harmonize economic, social, and environmental dimensions. The most important practical suggestion is to formulate and communicate specific quality standards for these resources, along with the development of low-cost treatment technologies and the selection of indigenous resistant species. Only through close cooperation between the government, the private sector and operators, and with the continuous implementation of these integrated policies, can a sustainable future be achieved in the aquaculture industry.

Abstract The crisis of water imbalance in contemporary Iran, particularly during the period of the Islamic Republic (1979-2025), has become one of the most complex challenges of governance, generating wide-ranging environmental, economic, social, and security consequences. Despite the unprecedented escalation of the water imbalance crisis and the adoption of numerous laws, programs, and documents in the water sector (which are themselves part of the policy-making process), the effective implementation of these documents and the realization of sustainable reforms in practice have failed. The water sector in Iran faces significant expert conflicts. These disagreements are not simply due to scientific perceptions, but each expert stream also has its own political backing. Therefore, the analysis of water policies cannot be complete without considering this link between knowledge, interests, and political fortune. Adopting a qualitative approach and drawing on documentary analysis and policy analysis, this study employs the Multiple Streams Framework and John Kingdon’s Policy Window model to address the central question of why, during the period of the Islamic Republic, the necessary “policy window” for a paradigmatic shift in water policy-making has not been effectively opened, despite the heightened salience of the water crisis and the availability of expert solutions. The findings indicate that, in the Islamic Republic period, the “problem stream,” marked by the intensification of water resource imbalance, land subsidence, the drying of ecosystems, and the emergence of social conflicts, has escalated to the level of a national security crisis. Within the “policy stream,” although solutions such as demand management and the balancing of groundwater resources have been proposed since the 1980s, the supply-oriented paradigm of dam construction and water transfer has continued to dominate in practice. By contrast, the “political stream,” due to institutional fragmentation, conflicts of interest, the influence of powerful stakeholders, weak oversight, and financial constraints, has been unable to effectively couple these two streams. As a result, the policy windows that have opened have either remained unused or have led to short-term and ineffective policies, which in turn have further deepened the crisis of water imbalance. This article shows that the aforementioned failure is largely due to structural weaknesses in the “policy-making process” (institutional fragmentation, influence of interest coalitions, policy conflict, and formulation-implementation gap), rather than a lack of law or technical knowledge.

Abstract In the optimal management of agricultural water consumption, the use of modern technologies is one of the main mechanisms for achieving high productivity. Gated pipe technology is considered a method for improving the efficiency of surface irrigation. Therefore, given the importance of applying this technology, the present study was conducted with the aim of explaining the role of extension programs, social and ethical norms in the willingness to adopt low-pressure irrigation technology. This research is applied in terms of its objective and is a quantitative study. The statistical population included farmers in the cities of Tabriz, Shabestar, Azarshahr, Osku, Khodaafrin and Sarab, totaling 98,720 people, from whom a sample of 382 people was selected using the multi-stage sampling method based on the Cochran formula. The research instrument was a researcher-made questionnaire, and formal validity and convergent validity were used to assess its validity. The results showed that the composite reliability for all constructs was appropriate. SPSS20 and AMOS21 software were used for data analysis. The research results, using structural equation modeling, showed that the social norm, extension programs, and ethical norm variables explained 62% of the variance of willingness to modernize traditional irrigation to low-pressure surface irrigation technology. Among the studied variables, the social norm variable was a stronger predictor. Environmental beliefs and attitudes, extension and educational programs in various media, neighbors, reference groups, local leaders, and pioneering farmers can play an important and effective role in farmers' adoption of new irrigation technology.

Abstract در راستای جلوگیری از گرمایش زمین و اثرات مخرب استفاده از سوخت‌های فسیلی، بهره‌گیری از انرژی‌های تجدیدپذیر در رأس برنامه‌های بسیاری از کشورها قرار گرفته است. با وجود سرمایه‌گذاری مناسب، نگرانی از کمبود موادمعدنی مورد استفاده در منابع تجدیدپذیر سبب شده است که اکتشاف معادن جدید شتاب بگیرد. هدف مطالعه حاضر بررسی پیامدهای بهره‌گیری از انرژی‌های تجدیدپذیر بر منابع آبی از منظر مواد معدنی مورد نیاز در صنایع مرتبط است. در این راستا، با مطالعه تحقیقات انجام گرفته به چالش‌های این موضوع پرداخته شده و اثر بهره‌گیری از انرژی‌های‌تجدیدپذیر بر منابع آبی از دیدگاه مواد معدنی مورد نیاز بررسی شده است. بررسی انجام گرفته نشان می دهد که چهارعامل کمبود موادمعدنی ، قرارگیری معادن در مناطق با تنش آبی، منازعات بین‌المللی و عدم کنترل زنجیره تأمین (به سبب انحصار تعدادی از کشورها) تأمین ایمن مواد مذکور را به یک چالش تبدیل کرده است. بر مبنای مطالعه انجام گرفته، در حدود نیمی از تولید لیتیوم ومس (به عنوان دو عنصر حیاتی جهت توسعه انرژی‌های‌تجدیدپذیر) در مناطقی است که تنش آبی‌بالایی دارند. این در حالی است که کمبود آب یک مانع بزرگ برای توسعه منابع مواد معدنی بوده و عملیات استخراج در بلندمدت سبب آلودگی آب می‌شود. در این راستا فعالیت‌ها، تأثیرات و خطرات ناشی از توسعه موادمعدنی مرتبط با آب در سه حوزه تولید، فرآوری و توزیع معرفی شده است. جهت پیشگیری و رفع این بحران، چهار راهکار شامل استفاده بهینه از مواد معدنی، مدیریت آب‌های زیرزمینی و ارتقا بهره‌وری، انجام اقدامات سیاسی و همچنین بکارگیری ابزارهای اقتصادی معرفی شده است.